Structural-Functionalism and Conflict Theory

Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to view our social world. A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon; it provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us to explain and predict the social world in which we live. Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the structural-functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic interactionist perspective. Each perspective offers a variety of explanations about the causes of and possible solutions for social problems (Rubington & Weinberg, 1995). Structural-Functionalist Perspective The structural-functionalist perspective is largely based on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to structural-functionalist, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions contributes important functions for society: family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children; education offers a way to transmit society's skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power. The structural-functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For example, the increase in single-parent and dual-earner families has contributed to the number of children who are failing in school because parents have become less available to supervise their children's homework. Due to changes in technology, colleges are offering more technical programs, and many adults are returning to school to learn new skills that are required in the workplace. The increasing number of women in the workforce has contributed to the formation of policies against sexual harassment and job discrimination. Consideration In viewing society as a set of interrelated parts, structural-functionalists also note that proposed solutions to a social problem may cause additional social problems. For example, racial imbalance in public schools led to forced integration, which in turn generated violence and increased hostility between the races. The use of plea bargaining was adopted as a means of dealing with overcrowded court dockets but resulted in â€Å"the revolving door of justice. Urban renewal projects often displaced residents and broke up community cohesion. Structural-functionalist use the terms â€Å"functional† and â€Å"dysfunctional† to describe the effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society may be both functional and dysfunctional for society. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But, according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion. Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton, 1968). Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. Latent functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society's youth. ut public elementary schools also serve as baby-sitters for employed parents, and college offer a place for young adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and mate selection functions are not the intended or commonly recognized functions of education–hence, they are latent functions. Structural-Functionalist Theories of Social Problems Two dominant theories of social problems grew out of the structural-functionalist perspective: social pathology and s ocial disorganization. Social Pathology According to the social pathology model, social problems result from some â€Å"sickness† in society. Just as the human body becomes ill when our systems, organs, and cells do not function normally, society becomes â€Å"ill† when its parts (i. e. , elements of the structure and culture) no longer perform properly. For example, problems such as crime, violence, poverty, and juvenile delinquency are often attributed to the breakdown of the family institution, the decline of the religious institution, and inadequacies in our economic, educational, and political institutions. Social â€Å"illness† also results when members of a society are not adequately socialized to adopt its norms and values. Persons who do not value honesty, for example, are prone to dishonesties of all sorts. Early theorists attributed the failure in socialization to â€Å"sick† people who could not be socialized. Later theorists recognized that failure in the socialization process stemmed from â€Å"sick† social conditions, not â€Å"sick† people. To prevent or solve social problems, members of society must receive proper socialization and moral education, which may be accomplished in the family, schools, churches, workplace, and/or through the media. Social Disorganization According to the social disorganization view of social problems, rapid social change disrupts the norms in a society. When norms become weak or are in conflict with each other, society is in a state of anomie or normlessness. Hence, people may steal, physically abuse their spouse or children, abuse drugs, rape or engage in other deviant behavior because the norms regarding their behaviors are weak or conflicting. According to this view, the solution to social problem lies in slowing the pace of social change and strengthening social norms. For example, although the use of alcohol by teenagers is considered a violation of a social norm in our society, this norm is weak. The media portray young people drinking alcohol, teenagers teach each other to drink alcohol and buy fake identification cards (IDs) to purchase alcohol, and parents model drinking behavior by having a few drinks after work or at a social event. Solutions to teenage drinking may involve strengthening norms against it through public education, restricting media depictions of youth and alcohol, imposing stronger sanctions against the use of fake IDs to purchase alcohol, and educating parents to model moderate and responsible drinking behavior. Conflict Perspective Whereas the structural-functionalist perspective views society as comprising different parts working together, the conflict perspective views society as comprising different groups and interests competing for power and resources. The conflict perspective explains various aspects of our social world by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social arrangement. The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx. Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern over making profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to the development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production (e. g. , factories, farms, businesses), and the proletariat, or the worker who earn wages. The division of society into two broad classes of people–the â€Å"haves† and the â€Å"have-nots†Ã¢â‚¬â€œis beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may earn only subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources available to the wealthy owners. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to control the institutions of society to their advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves as an â€Å"opiate of the masses† in that it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the working-class lifestyle and focuses workers' attention on spirituality, God, and the afterlife rather than on such worldly concerns as living conditions. In essence, religion diverts the workers so that they concentrate on being rewarded in heaven for living a moral life rather than on questioning exploitation. Conflict Theories of Social Problems There are two general types of conflict theories of social problems: Marxist and non-Marxist. Marxist theories focus on social conflict that results from economic inequalities; non-Marxist theories focus on social conflict that results form competing values and interests among social groups. [Note: Non-Marxist theories are also referred to as neo-Marxist theories–â€Å"non† and â€Å"neo† are interchangeable. ] Marxist Conflict Theories According to contemporary Marxist theorists, social problems result from class inequality inherent in a capitalistic system. A system of â€Å"haves† and â€Å"have-nots† may be beneficial to the â€Å"haves† but often translate into poverty for the â€Å"have-nots. Many social problems, including physical and mental illness, low educational achievement, and crime are linked to poverty. In addition to creating an impoverished class of people, capitalism also encourages â€Å"corporate violence. † Corporate violence may be defined as actual harm and/or risk of harm inflicted on consumers, worker s, and the general public as a result of decisions by corporate executives or manages. Corporate violence may also result from corporate negligence, the quest for profits at any cost, and willful violation of health, safety, and environmental laws (Hills, 1987). Our profit-motivated economy encourages individuals who are otherwise good, kind, and law-abiding to knowingly participate in the manufacturing and marketing of defective brakes on American jets, fuel tanks on automobiles, and contraceptive devices (intrauterine devices [IUDs]). The profit motive has also caused individuals to sell defective medical devices, toxic pesticides, and contaminated foods to developing countries. Blumberg (1989) suggests that â€Å"in an economic system based exclusively on motives of self-interests and profit, such behavior is inevitable† (p. 06). Marxist conflict theories also focus on the problem of alienation, or powerlessness and meaninglessness in people's lives. In industrialized societies, workers often have little power or control over their jobs, which fosters a sense of powerlessness in their lives. The specialized nature of work requires workers to perform limited and repetitive tasks; as a result, the workers may come to feels that their lives are meaningless. Alienation is bred not only in the workplace, but also in the classroom. Students have little power over their education and often find the curriculum is not meaningful to their lives. Like poverty, alienation is linked to other social problems, such as low educational achievement, violence, and suicide. Marxist explanations of social problems imply that the solution lies in eliminating inequality among classes of people by creating a classless society. The nature of work must also change to avoid alienation. Finally, stronger controls must be applied to corporations to ensure that corporate decisions and practices are based on safety rather than profit considerations. Non-Marxist Conflict Theories Non-Marxist conflict theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf are concerned with conflict that arise when groups have opposing values and interests. For example, antiabortion activists value the life of unborn embryos and fetuses; prochoice activists value the right of women to control their own body and reproductive decisions. These different value positions reflect different subjective interpretations of what constitutes a social problem. For antiabortionists, the availability of abortion is the social problem; for prochoice advocates, restrictions on abortion are the social problem. Sometimes the social problem is not the conflict itself, but rather the way that conflict is expressed. Even most prolife advocates agree that shooting doctors who perform abortions and blowing up abortion clinics constitute unnecessary violence and lack of respect for life. Value conflicts may occur between diverse categories of people, including nonwhites versus whites, heterosexuals versus homosexuals, young versus old, Democrats versus Republicans, and environmentalists versus industrialists. Solutions to the problems that are generated by competing values may involve ensuring that conflicting groups understand each other's views, resolving differences through negotiation or mediation, or agreeing to disagree. Ideally, solutions should be win-win; both conflicting groups are satisfied with the solution. However, outcomes of value conflicts are often influenced by power; the group with the most power may use its position to influence the outcome of value conflicts. For example, when Congress could not get all states to voluntarily increase the legal drinking age to 21, it threatened to withdraw federal highway funds from those that would not comply. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Both the structural-functionalist and the conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of society, such as institutions and large groups, influence the social world. This level of sociological analysis is called macro sociology: It looks at the â€Å"big picture† of society and suggests how social problems are affected at the institutional level. Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is concerned with the social psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small groups. Symbolic interactionism reflects the micro sociological perspective and was largely influenced by the work of early sociologists and philosophers such as Max Weber, Georg Simmel, Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead, William Isaac Thomas, Erving Goffman, and Howard Becker. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior is influenced by definitions and meanings that are created and maintained through symbolic interactions with others. Sociologist William Isaac Thomas ([1931] 1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings in social behavior and its consequences. He suggested that humans respond to their definition of a situation rather than to the objective situation itself. Hence, Thomas noted that situations we define as real become real in their consequences. Symbolic interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense or self is shaped by social interaction. we develop our self-concept by observing how others interact with us and label us. By observing how others view us, we see a reflection of ourselves that Cooley calls the â€Å"looking glass self. Lastly, the symbolic interaction perspective has important implications for how social scientist conduct research. The German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) argued that in order to understand the individual and group behavior, social scientists must see the world from the eyes of that individual or group. Weber called this approach Verstehen, which in German means â€Å"empathy. † Verstehen implies that in conducting research, social scientists must try to understand others' view of reality and the subjective aspects of their experiences, including their symbols, values, attitudes, and beliefs. Symbolic Interactionist Theories of Social Problems A basic premise of symbolic interactionist theories of social problems is that a condition must be defined or recognized as a social problem in order for it to be a social problem. Based on this premise, Herbert Blumer (1971) suggested that social problems develop in stages. First, social problems pass through the stage of â€Å"societal recognition†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthe process by which a social problem, for example, drunk driving, is â€Å"born. † Second, â€Å"social legitimation† takes place when the social problem achieves recognition by the larger community, including the media, schools, and churches. As the visibility of traffic fatalities associated with alcohol increased, so the the legitimation of drunk driving as a social problem. The next stage in the development of a social problem involves â€Å"mobilization for action,† which occurs when individuals and groups, such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving, become concerned about how to respond to the social condition. This mobilization leads to the â€Å"development and implementation of an official plan† for dealing with the problem, involving, for example, highway checkpoints, lower legal blood-alcohol levels, and tougher drunk driving regulations. Blumer's stage development view of social problems is helpful in tracing the development of social problems. For example, although sexual harassment and date rape have occurred throughout this century, these issues did not begin to receive recognition as social problems until the 1970s. Social legitimation of these problems was achieved when high schools, colleges, churches, employers, and the media recognized their existence. Organized social groups mobilized to develop and implement plans to deal with these problems. For example, groups successfully lobbied for the enactment of laws against sexual harassment and the enforcement of sanctions against violators of these laws. Groups mobilized to provide educational seminars on date rate for high school and college students and to offer support services to victims of date rape. Some disagree with the symbolic interactionist view that social problems exist only if they are recognized. According to this view, individuals who were victims of date rape in the 1960s may be considered victims of a problem, even though date rape was not recognized at that time as a social problem. Labeling theory, a major symbolic interactionist theory of social problems, suggests that a social condition or group is viewed as problematic if it is labeled as such. According to labeling theory, resolving social problems sometimes involves changing the meanings and definitions that are attributed to people and situations. For example, as long as teenagers define drinking alcohol as â€Å"cool† and â€Å"fun,† they will continue to abuse alcohol.

Causal Argument: Does Violence In The Media Affect Children

Violence is found all around us in the media. Parents are becoming worried about what their children are exposed to. There has been an ongoing debate as to whether violence in the media can affect children to imitate acts of violence. After much research I have found there is a link between watching violence, and committing acts of violence. Children who are exposed to excessive amounts of violence on television, in video games, and through song lyrics, than children who are not, are much more likely to commit acts of violence later in their lives. Many wonder if watching violence on television can influence individuals to act violently, and many studies have found a link between viewing violence on TV and committing acts of violence later in life. For example, University of Michigan psychologists Leonard Eron and Rowell Huesmann conducted a study spanning decades where they watched over 800 preschoolers, and followed them until adulthood to see how television violence affected them. The study concluded that children who watched excessive amounts of television tended to be more aggressive towards other children. Eron and Huesman checked back with the preschoolers eleven and twenty two years ago, and found that the aggressive preschools became even more aggressive as they got older with more acts of domestic violence, and more traffic tickets than their peers. Many experts also believe that when children view violence on television they try to imitate what they see. For instance, there was an incident when a five year old, while watching the cartoon Beavis and Butthead saw the characters bsession with fire, and decided to light his house on fire, which killed his little sister (Children, Media and Violence). Not only are children exposed to violence on television, violence is also found in video games. With the recent advancements in technology, video games are looking more and more realistic every day. With the introduction of better video games systems, and graphics, video games are becoming increasingly popular with children and teenagers. Some might argue that video games cannot influence young people, because they are aware that the games are fantasy, but studies conducted by the Surgeon General and a National Institute of Mental Health concluded that the more realistic something looks, the more likely it will be learned. This simply means that the more realistic something looks, the more influential it will be to the individual viewing it. (American Academy of Pediatrics Online). The National Institute of Mental Health also claims that children up to age eight cannot distinguish between real life and fantasy, so when they play these games they believe that committing acts of violence is an effective form of problem solving. The National Coalition on Television Violence found that in Mortal Kombat, one of the best selling video games of all time, your object is not just to kill your opponent, but to master your skills at doing so (Children Youth and Family Consortium Electronic Clearinghouse). This kind of play has to affect children. People are most impressionistic when they are young, and they learn by their actions. They win the game for killing everyone. This teaches makes them more tolerant of violence, and more likely to commit violent crimes later in life. Music is another form of media, which influences children and teenagers. In 1995, Entertainment Monitor reported that only 10 out of the top 40 popular CD s on sale during the holiday season were free of profanity, or lyrics dealing with drugs, violence, and sex. Rap superstar, Eminem s CD titled, The Marshall Mathers LP as already sold more than 4. 1 million albums, and is currently at the top of the music charts (Billboard. com) has already stirred up tons of controversy with its lyrics. The Marshall Mathers LP has songs titled Criminal, Drug Ballad, and Kill You. According to Eminem s success, this is what people enjoy listening to. They do not seem bothered by the language or subjects. Not only are the lyrics explicitly violent, but they do influence the children who listen to it. Rap music is not the only genre of music containing violent lyrics. There was an incident where a teenager shot his parents, and claimed that listing to music by gothic artist Marilyn Manson drove him to such extremes. Marilyn Manson has created a whole new trend among young people. They call their look gothic and wear black clothing. Sometimes they paint their faces white, and wear dog collars, much like their idol Manson. If there is someone to blame for all this violence in our media, it would be the entertainment industry; however, they argue that they are giving the public what they want. This is not a true statement according to Michael Medved, who has written books where he analyzed media violence. Medved analyzed all films that were released between 1980 and 1992 and found that family films earned more than twice as much on average as violent films. This data is surprising considering that violent films made up over sixty percent of the films released. So, is the public really getting what they want The entertainment industry also claims that television does not harm children, because they can distinguish between what is real and what is fake. Once again, they are wrong. Many preschoolers while watching Sesame Street cannot tell whether the Muppets are real or fake. They do not comprehend that Big Bird is really a man dressed up in a costume (American Academy of Pediatrics). In conclusion, violence in the media does not seem to be going away. It is all around our children; on television, in video games, and in music. Until the entertainment industry decides to limit the amount of violence we are exposed to, it will always be a problem. Then again, without the media who knows where we would be today. We might live in a much safer society.

Bridge Syllabus 2012-2013 Essay Example for Free (#2012)

Bridge Syllabus 2012-2013 Essay 4. Course Overview: Welcome! This course is designed for entering students who plan to major in biology at IUPUI. The overall goal is to facilitate your entry into IUPUI, and help you succeed in college. We will be building on academic skills you already have and introducing you to the many resources available at IUPUI. During the summer, you will be part of the Summer Bridge, and will participate in activities with other groups of students. During the fall, we will be a section of Windows on Science (Science learning community, section 10316) which is a one credit course. The last meeting of the Windows on Science will be October 25, when we register for Spring 2013 classes. As part of the IUPUI bridge program, we will concentrate on introducing you to the campus and preparing you for college-level coursework. This class will use Oncourse (oncourse. iu. edu) to post grades, make announcements, etc. During the summer and fall you will meet several people in the School of Science, including at least one of the professors teaching one of your fall classes. These meetings will be quite informal and allow you to learn more about science, and about the courses they teach and what it takes to succeed in them. It will also make it easier to go to them for help if you need it later. 5. Research Projects: Most of you know that science is based on lots of accumulated knowledge, but you may not realize it also requires the ability to imagine what comes next, and/or innovative ways to use and transmit that knowledge to others. During the summer and fall you will work independently on three projects designed to introduce you to the culture and creativity of science, and the value of both imagination and knowledge. Two of the projects will be done as individuals working on subjects of their own choosing, and the third will be the whole class working on a single topic. To assist you with these projects you will be introduced to the university’s library system, the writing center (college-level writing), and the communication department (college-level oral presentations). These will help you not only with the bridge projects but later with Eng-W 131 and Comm-R 110, the composition and communication courses required for almost every major at IUPUI. Both of the individual projects will end with an oral presentation that will also include power point slides – if you need help with power point just ask either the mentor or Dr. Ulbright for help. The first individual research project (Imagination) will focus on the role of imagination in scientific work. For this research project you will select a problem involving society or your community and come up with a novel idea of how you could use science to solve it. This problem can be economic, social, ecological, health or any other category – the choice is yours. The solution can be as real-world or as imaginative as you wish but it must be at least partly based on some real science. This will culminate on August 15 or 16 with a short (3 -5 minutes long) oral presentation and a short (250 word) paper. In both the presentation and the paper you should †¢ explain what the problem is †¢ explain why you chose it †¢ describe your solution with relevant details †¢ suggest what should be considered in designing the solution(s) †¢ note any new problem(s) that you think your solution might cause. The second individual research project (Knowledge) will let you become an expert in one area where science has a covert or overt community impact. You will briefly discuss how and what areas of science are involved, and probably will want to choose a topic you can relate to your proposed major and/or career. On August 23 or 30 you will give a five-minute talk about your topic, including at least 6 PowerPoint slides. On August 23 you will hand in a 250 word summary/essayg;ER. g’Erglo on it. As part of this project you will learn how to use the electronic library resources for college-level research and literature searches. During bridge you will be introduced to the IUPUI library resources and as part of this project you will find two (2) pertinent research articles and one non-peer-reviewed but credible source dealing with your subject. You may not use Wikipedia, or any dictionary or encyclopedia. The third, whole-class project (Service) will have two parts – both will use your media and technology skills, plus your knowledge of biology. The class will decide on the two projects they will do. For the first project, which will be done during Bridge, there is a choice of working with 2nd grade or  high school subjects. For both, the idea is to create an exercise covering a required science topic and making science interesting. Besides media skills, this will draw on your imagination, and your ideas of what students like. We have lists of topics for both grade levels. The second project, which we will do once the semester starts, is to create tutorial presentations to help high school students master some of the tougher concepts in biology – for example, the biochemistry of photosynthesis, meiosis, etc. This project will also help many of our bridge students because these subjects are covered in K101. We will try to finish both projects by September 29 (depends on when the selected topics are covered in K101). For extra credit, members of the Bridge class will visit the 2nd grade classroom. 6. Bridge Scrapbook – during the fall semester the class will select pictures from the Bridge and fall semester images, and create a power point â€Å"scrapbook†. Students will work in the teams they had for their scavenger hunt. This is due Oct 18. 7. Goals: The goals of this Bridge/Window course include: †¢ To help you develop the skills for success in college. Should you have any concerns about physical, academic or other challenges you may face as you start college, we will help you learn about solutions and assistance available to you at IUPUI and make every effort to assist you in making your Bridge and first year experience successful. †¢ To develop a group of friends who will be in some of your classes †¢ To share information on campus resources. †¢ To provide a context for assessing interests, values, and abilities so you can make the most of your time at the university. †¢ To provide a place for students to establish a support network at the University, including faculty, staff, librarians, and students. †¢ To introduce students to the IUPUI Principles of Undergraduate Learning. †¢ To enhance understanding and respect for values and practices of the academic community, including respect for diversity, the open exchange of ideas, collegiality, and academic and scientific integrity. 8. Course Requirements: †¢ Attend class regularly, be on time, and actively participate in class discussions and activities, including fieldtrips. If you must be absent, notify the instructor (Ulbright) before class. †¢ Complete the four projects. For the Imagination and Knowledge projects, present your work as an oral presentation that includes PowerPoint. For the knowledge project – submit a 250 essay summarizing what you learned. For the two Service â€Å"Teaching Science† projects, work with the class to complete and submit your part by the due dates. †¢ Learn how to use technologies such as Oncourse and information resources. †¢ Complete assignments and submit them by the due date. †¢ Submit daily journals and other assignments via Oncourse. †¢ Meet with the faculty member at least once before October 1. †¢ Meet the student mentor outside of class before October 1. †¢ Meet with the advisor and complete your preliminary academic plan by October 11, 2012. Submit your proposed schedule (OneStart shopping cart) by October 18. †¢ Register for spring 2013 on October 25, 2012. †¢ Attend two campus activities/events. †¢ Shadow or interview someone working in a job you are considering as your career or that is similar (we may do this during one of our class periods) †¢ There is NO FINAL EXAM in Windows – yay! 9. Grades: Assignments, attendance, journals and exercises during Bridge will be part of your Windows grade. Graded components will include: †¢ Imagination Project – 40 points †¢ Knowledge Project – 100 points †¢ Service Project – 100 points †¢ Meeting with advisor to plan spring schedule prior to Oct 11 – 25 points †¢ Meeting with student mentor during September – 20 points †¢ Meeting with faculty mentor before Oct. 1 – 20 points †¢ Journals – 10 points each †¢ Attendance – 10 points per class meeting (including Bridge) †¢ Registration – 20 points †¢ Career Shadowing – 20 points. †¢ Campus events/activities – 10 points each (you may do additional ones for extra credit) †¢ Career Assignment – 20 points †¢ Time Management – 10 points †¢ Scrapbook – 15 points †¢ Other assignments will be announced Grade Scale: A = 90% and above of possible points B = 80% C = 70% D = 60% F = less than 60% 10. Basic Policies Attendance: As you begin your college career at IUPUI, attending your courses regularly and on time will be vital to becoming a successful student. You have made a significant commitment to yourself, your college, your classmates, and your professors to be involved in the classes for which you have enrolled. Students who are present and participate are best able to learn; those who regularly attend class, come prepared and on time, and participate are also in the best position to demonstrate what they have learned. Since your college career begins with the Summer Bridge, we encourage you to make attendance and arrival times a priority. Admission in the Summer Academy is a privilege; therefore, we expect perfect attendance. We also expect you to arrive to your classes on time and stay for the full day. If you are not willing to commit to perfect attendance and arriving to class on time, then we would like to offer your seat in the program to someone who is committed. Only documented absences for genuine emergencies will be excusable, and there will be grade penalties for incomplete participation and tardiness. With traffic, parking, etc. you might have trouble getting to class on time, so being 15 minutes late once will be overlooked. After the first late arrival, each time you arrive late or leave early you will lose the points for that class meeting. For each unexcused absence during the fall semester your grade will be lowered by 1/3 (for example, from an A to an A-). In addition, if you miss more than two class meetings during the first four weeks of the fall semester without a valid excuse you will be administratively withdrawn from the fall part of the class (Windows on Science). Administrative withdrawal may have academic, financial aid, and financial implications. Since it occurs after the refund period has ended you will not be eligible for a refund, and it will be difficult to add a class to replace the credit hour. If you have questions about the administrative withdrawal or attendance policies at any point in the semester, please contact me (Dr. Ulbright). Please keep in close touch with me if you are unable to attend class or complete an assignment on time – together we can usually find a solution. Civility and Conduct: Both Bridge and Windows should provide students the opportunity to understand and practice behaviors which support their learning and that of others within an atmosphere of mutual respect. This should include expectations related to respect for the rights of others, acceptance of one’s responsibilities as a member of a community of learners, and the practice of academic integrity, such as the following from the IUPUI Code of Student Rights, Responsibilities,and Conduct [http://www. iupui. edu/code]: The University has certain expectations as to the civility of our campus community. Among those values is fostering a climate of civility and mutual respect regardless of race, gender, age, or status in the institution. IUPUI has achieved much of its promise as an urban university because we work together toward common ends. Because the university is so complex and diverse, however, we will not always agree with one another. When we disagree it must be done with civility. We encourage everyone to speak and act judiciously and with respect for one another. Also among our values are academic freedom and an open exchange of ideas and opinions. However, when there are messages displayed that promote divisiveness in our academic community we have an obligation to condemn those messages as being antithetical to our university ideals and sense of shared responsibility for each other’s welfare. If we are to be true to our commitment to diversity and be welcoming to all, everyone must do his or her part. We know the terrible legacy of unopposed statements of racial divisiveness and diatribe. If we don’t discourage such statements, they become insidiously acceptable and poison the climate of trust and respect we strive to maintain. When apathy leads us to permit discrimination or harassment because we ourselves are not objects of such behavior, we have failed our community. No set of rules or policies can wholly govern human conduct. Civility is a fragile construct that each of us must cherish and preserve. Academic Integrity and Plagiarism: IUPUI has high expectations of its students. Academic and personal misconduct by students is defined and will be dealt with according to the procedures specified in the IUPUI Code of Student Rights, Responsibilities, and Conduct [http://www. iupui. edu/code]. There are five fundamental values that this academic community expects: honesty, fairness, respect, responsibility and trust. It is important for students to be aware of the expectations of IUPUI regarding individual course work, including Oncourse assignments and examinations. Students should be aware of the rules which govern their behavior, both on and off campus, and aware of the consequences of making poor choices. Instructors have tools available through Oncourse which enable monitoring of their activity within the virtual classroom and programs such as Turnitin to detect plagiarism, and these tools can be used as evidence of academic misconduct. Please consider that holding yourself to high standards of academic integrity in your college work will likely be important to you in some way in your future. Academic dishonesty limits the amount of actual learning you can accomplish – not learning material well in a one class means you are poorly prepared for the next class and may later effect your job performance in the future – regardless of whether you are â€Å"caught† or not. We hope the person calculating the dosage of radiation you will receive really did earn that â€Å"A† in Physics. Class Etiquette: The first-year seminar course is structured to be a time for learning within a civil framework. Inappropriate talking, eating, texting or working on other coursework during the class session should be avoided. Inappropriate student behavior not conducive to the proper functioning of the class will be identified and dealt with immediately. Tentative Fall Schedule 2012 Windows (Bridge) Section 10316 Room BS 3012 Thursdays 3:00 – 4:50pm August 23 IUPUI resources (online and on-campus), time to work on Service project, First set of Knowledge Orals. August 30 Rest of Knowledge Orals September 6 Medical Museum September 13 Service Project and Advising September 20 TBA September 27 Role of Science in American Culture, Ethics and Science October 4 Principles of Undergraduate Education, Professional and Graduate Programs October 11 Eiteljorg Museum; Career Assignment due October 18 Study abroad, Next semester’s profs, Scrapbook and Schedules with sections due October 25 Registration, Pizza, Last Class. Bridge Syllabus 2012-2013. (2016, Sep 23).

Psychology sexual Identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Psychology sexual Identity - Essay Example Fortunately, I now have the capacity to gauge their influence on my relationships-how they start, get maintained or ultimately end. Prior to learning all these, it is as if they passed by my life like a stream. Having been in this course enabled me to dip my hands and catch a handful of water - I am now able to contemplate about these ideas and not just let them influence me without my comprehension. '''''' I have acquired a lot from the course, and one of them is utilizing critical thinking and value systems in arriving at sexual decisions. Sex is indeed a basic, physiologic need, but expressing one's sexuality is also ridden by personal choices and not just controlled by raging hormones (Nevid et. al, 2005). I have tackled sexual decisions before without so much thought to them, and by then I could have been labeled as a follower of ethical relativism-living life and acting out according to one's own conscience rather than depending on external frames of thought to identify the demarcation line between bad and good (Nevid, et. al, 2005). Knowing the other value systems has not caused me to be swayed to switching and adhering to them, but it has helped me gain understanding of the rationales for other people's sexual actions. More than understanding other people, I have learned that my belief in ethical relativism boils down to my being open-minded and tolerant of diversity. Opposing opinions do not irritate me, nor am I advocating for oneness of opinion just to promote harmony amongst people who are intolerant of differences. I may see pre-marital sex as acceptable, but I can deal with people who staunchly believe that it is a sin and deserves abomination. Through this, I am now able to respect their decisions more, and also, I am able to respect my very own decisions as well because I have seen how self-reliant I am, enough that I was and still is able, to make sexual decisions in accordance with my own conscience-decisions that give not only space for freedom, but also impose limitations if this already tramples o n another's rights. '''''' During the duration of the course, my critical thinking skills applied in sexual decisions has also been honed and sharpened. I used to jump inside the bandwagon of pop psychology, believing in claims that has garnered growing number of support, and with this in mind, fueled enough complacency in me to apply in my sexual life. It is no different from all those fab diet regimens advertised in commercials; not all of them produce the results they claim to bring about. Of particular and pragmatic use are some guidelines presented in the first chapter. I learned how not to take everything by hook, line and sinker. I learned how to debate with what the book presented as fact. Indeed, there are book and magazines showing off that they have what it takes, methods and all, to bring out an explosive sexual experience. My old self used to pick up those kinds of magazines and buy them. Now I criticize the article first with questions like, "Who wrote this'", "Do they have credible and reliable sources or is the article just filled with sensationalized personal accounts'" Critical thinking enables me to ask the right questions so that I might arrive at the correct answers, which in turn becomes a guide for me to reach sensible decisions.' Effect of Environment and Historical

Final Exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Final Exam - Assignment Example esses in a way but there should be clear, well-defined, and realistic goals, even if those goals are limited to one aspect of life or restricted to one region of the world. The fact is that these movements are able to fulfill their goals (Schulze, 2002). Promote and establish various training programs to educate women and men, Muslim and non-Muslim, on the principles of gender equality and social, economic, and political justice in Islam. The majority of Muslim women are marginalized from the legal and power structures. Thus there are needs and concerns of women arising from their daily struggles to be addressed in local laws and customs. Customs have to be changed in ways that increase women’s life options, the goal of the process by strengthening of the religious and ethnic or national community. Moreover, questions of sexual morality, marriage and family life, divorce, custody, inheritance has to be addressed (Wagner, 2007). There is a change in Attitudes toward Democracy. There are many countries encompassed by Muslim around the globe. Research has shown that Muslim religious and politics are mostly influence by their ideologies, political and legal orientations which is also true to other religions. Muslim preferred forms of government, attitudes toward human rights, community agendas and relations to terrorism have been viewed as tendency for violence. Muslim societies should try to alter this perception and find ways of falling within democratic values spectrum and reject violence by those that oppose democracy. This strategy can help policymakers identify potential partners in the Muslim world who may cooperate in promoting democracy, stability and countering the influence of extremist and violent groups (Schulze, 2002). Muslim societies should discourage radical activities in their corresponding areas. This is because in some nations there are several developments that have been made over time in attempting to intensify Islamic radicalism. For example

If time travel were possible, to what time period and place in history Essay

If time travel were possible, to what time period and place in history would you return to live Give reasons for your decision to live in this period and locat - Essay Example It is during this time that one of the world's greatest writers originated, William Shakespeare. It was not only an era of romance but also one of reality. The poor of the country were treated well and their well being was thought of. Even though peace was not absolute but it was general. When Queen Elizabeth inherited the throne, the country was bankrupt. It was her policies that restored some of the huge debts that the country was under and increased prosperity. In terms of economic development, the first stock exchange was developed during this period by Sir Thomas Gresham. Before this period, witches were prosecuted and torture was common for all types of crimes. Once Elizabeth came to power, such events became rare, although they did take place but not on such a scale to be noticed. There was much research in science and technology. Most of these achievements were in the field of navigation. There were many small and insignificant inventions as well. Bottled beer, one of the things we take for granted was invented during this era in 1568. Among other things were the flush toilet, knitting machine, telescope, pencil and pocket watch. The first time the English tried to settle in North America was during this era. Women were brought up to believe that they were inferior to men and that their job was to obey the men in their household.

Open Source Software Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Open Source Software - Article Example For example, Linux is a good example of open source software that is competing with Microsoft, Apple and other. But depending upon the person some people still think that it is a temporary fashion in software industry another, on the contrary, believes that changes caused by open source will be deep enough and will shape the software industry of the first decade of 21st century. Open source software plays an important role in today’s world. Many people, organization, government sector are benefited by the open source software and are working towards development and support of it. In this paper philosophy of open source, definitions, advantages and disadvantages of open source software, some background history and motivation for open source software, Licences, Copyright Law and Patents, Economics of Open Source Software and at last impact of open source technology will be discussed. What is Open Source Software? : One can not define the Open Source Software in few words, because of many categories and variants that exist for Open Source Software. But it is not complicated and the term ‘Open Source Software’ itself gives an idea about it. Now before giving a definition from various people about the Open Source Software, first look at what general people think about the Open Source Software. General Idea of Open Source Software: The term ‘Open Source’ in Open Source Software refers to user’s freedom of use, redistribution, etc. One can not assume that Open Source Software and Free Software are same things. It can be said clearly that open source software does not have to be gratis.  

Seizing Computers and Obtaining Electronic Evidence in Criminal Essay

Seizing Computers and Obtaining Electronic Evidence in Criminal Investigations - Essay Example The plain view exception indicates that the search warrant holders should seize evidence in plain view. No warrant is needed to seize evidence that is in view. However, in computer devices, this is not applicable. Courts have generally held that law enforcers are entitled to search the entire computing device for evidence in the case of a crime. The law enforcers are encouraged to look for information in the entire device by reviewing every file in the computer. This is major because of the ease with which files in a computer can be camouflaged or hidden in different kinds of names and extensions. Assume that the courts in your jurisdiction are considering requiring a judicially approved ‘search protocol’ before a judge will sign a search warrant authorizing a search of any computer device. Computers can be used to manipulate evidence and make it difficult for authorities to obtain the required information to prosecute or find evidence. Even though law enforcers are allo wed to carry out a search warrant if the courts deem it fit to curtail their mandate they would be forced to oblige, but at the risk of losing vital evidence. If courts restrict searches of computer devices up to the point when a judicial approval is received, suspects can manipulate their devices and do away with what can be incriminating. However, if the judicial approval is needed before a search warrant, then the law enforcers should be allowed to have the devices in their possession to eliminate the risk of the accused tampering with the evidence.

Stepfamilies with Adolescents - Counseling Interventions Pertaining to Case Study

Stepfamilies with Adolescents - Counseling Interventions Pertaining to Communication and Discipline - Case Study Example Parenting is the most difficult aspects of a stepfamily. It is more difficult to form a stepfamily with adolescent children compared to forming a family with younger children. The main cause could be because of developmental stages. Research indicates that children who are between the ages of 10 and 14 may have a hard time in adjusting into a stepfamily. However, both children above the age of 15 and under the age of 10 may need to have a stepparent. The older or the children who are over 15 may need little or less parenting and will be less involved in the family. Finally, the children who are under 10 may be willing to have another adult in the family. Family structure has recently transformed due to both demographic and social changes. According to the Office of National Statistic, marriage rates have drastically while the number of divorce cases has remained constant. In recent years, people become parents and have their first child easily in a cohabiting union rather than within a marriage. Moreover, between 1975 and 2004, non-marital childbirth has drastically increased, from 9% to 43%, in which two-thirds is of unmarried parents. Several factors may affect how a child adjusts to a stepfamily this include, gender of the child. Girls attend to be more difficult than boys are and they may take time in adjusting in a stepfamily. For instance, stepfamilies that include the natural mother and a stepfather, the girls are more likely than boys to oppose the new male figure. In divorced families, where there is only a single parent that is involved, mother-daughter relationships tend to be extremely close. Consequently, girls may see the stepfather as a threat to the relationship with her mother when the mother decides to remarry. Alternatively, boys would quickly adjust since they yearn for a masculine figure.  

Fukushima power plant disaser Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fukushima power plant disaser - Essay Example The events resulted in an explosion and partial nuclear meltdown in three operational reactors of the plant. However, it never caused serious fatalities given the rapid response including evacuation efforts. Even though the disaster never caused many deaths, it comprises of the significant occurrences in the global history. It remains as the biggest nuclear disaster that took the authorities about 14 days to completely shut down the facility and several years to decommission and restore the effects. The collapse began when the tsunami severely damaged three operational reactors in plant number 1 and 2 at the Fukushima Daiichi. Subsequently, the shutdown stopped operations of the site by stopping the backup diesel generators thereby leading to a site blackout. The blackout and tsunami resulted in the failure of seawater pumps thus hindering cooling of the reactors. It then led to the meltdowns in the three primary reactors of the facility. In response, the government issued an evacuation notice for people within the 3-kilometre radius and later 10 km radius because of the magnitude of the challenge (Fukushima Accident). The radiations contaminated the Pacific Ocean water and caused massi ve air pollution. It also led to displacements of people, disruption of the way of life, the decline in the economic activities. The Tokaimura accident in 1999 triggered the development of radiation-resistant robots. However, a task force that included the representatives of Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) discredited the robots in 2002. Besides, no nation or plant projected the possibility of occurrence of a disaster similar to the Chernobyl. The firms also showed belief in the skilled employees to manage and limit the occurrence of nuclear accidents. Hence, dissolution of radiation robots enhanced Japan’s vulnerabilities and limited the response options to the Fukushima disaster (Lochbaum, Lyman and Stranahan 40). Earlier on, the Tokyo Electric Power

Earth Essay Example for Free

Earth Essay Earth is the planet on which we live. Earth is the third planet from the sun. The particles which compose of the mass of the earth but more particularly the particles which from the mould on the surface of Earth. The Earth is the largest member of the group of inner planets and is also the most massive. When the Earth is compared with its planetary neighbors, marked similarities as well marked differences are found. Of course, what singles the Earth out from any other planets is the fact that it has an oxygen-rich atmosphere and a temperature that makes it suitable for life of the kind we can understand. Were the Earth slightly close to the sun and slightly farther away, life here might not have developed. The purpose of this research is to let us learn more about our Planet that we are living and also aims to help us understand more about our planet. Even we have an idea what Planet Earth is all about, we must dig deeper and know the characteristics of Earth that we haven’t yet know. `The completion of this paper was made possible through my research in library, and computers. Some books, encyclopedia, dictionary, some magazines computer encyclopedia and other website, I got all I want to know. They are very helpful for my research, and thanks be to God for giving me wisdom to do this term paper alone and by myself. Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar Systems four terrestrial planets. It is sometimes referred to as the world, the Blue Planet, or by its Latin name, Terra. Earth formed approximately 4. 54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within one billion years. Earths biosphere then significantly altered the atmospheric and other basic physical conditions, which enabled the proliferation of organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer, which together with Earths magnetic field blocked harmful solar radiation, and permitted formerly ocean-confined life to move safely to land. The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its geological history and orbit, have allowed life to persist. Estimates on how much longer the planet will be able to continue to support life range from 500 million years (myr), to as long as 2. billion years (byr). Earths crust is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered by salt water oceans, with the remainder consisting of continents and islands which together have many lakes and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. Earths poles are mostly covered with ice that is the solid ice of the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice that is the polar ice packs. The planets interior remains active, with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the magnetic field, and a thick layer of relatively solid mantle. Earth gravitationally interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon. During one orbit around the sun, the Earth rotates about its own axis 366. 26 times, creating 365. 26 solar days, or one sidereal year. The Earths axis of rotation is tilted 23. 4Â ° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface with a period of one tropical year (365. 24 solar days). The Moon is Earths only natural satellite. It began orbiting the Earth about 4. 53 billion years ago (bya). The Moons gravitational interaction with Earth stimulates ocean tides, stabilizes the axial tilt, and gradually slows the planets rotation. The planet is home to millions of species, including humans. Both the mineral resources of the planet and the products of the biosphere contribute resources that are used to support a global human population. These inhabitants are grouped into about 200 independent sovereign states, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade, and military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including its personification as a planetary deity, its shape as flat, its position as the center of the universe, and in the modern Gaia Principle, as a single, self-regulating organism in its own right Formation The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672Â ±0. 0006 bya; therefore, it is inferred that the Earth must have been forming by accretion around this time. By 4. 54Â ±0. 04 bya. The primordial Earth had formed. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that in tandem with the star. A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust (includingprimordial nuclides). In nebular theory planetesimals commence forming as particulate accrues by cohesive clumping and then by gravity. The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 10–20 myr. The Moon formed shortly thereafter, about 4. 53 bya. The Moons formation remains a mystery. The working hypothesis is that it formed by accretion from material loosed from the Earth after a Mars-sized object, dubbed Theia, had a giant impact with Earth, but the model is not self-consistent. In this scenario the mass of Theia is 10% of the Earths mass, it impacts with the Earth in a glancing blow, and some of its mass merges with the Earth. Between approximately 3. 8 and 4. 1 bya, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon, and by inference, to the Earth. Earths atmosphere and oceans formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor. The origin of the worlds oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, proto-planets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at 70% luminosity. By 3. 5 bya, the Earths magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. A crust formed when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid as the accumulated water vapor began to act in the atmosphere. The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growthearly in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earths interior. Ontime scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken up three times. Roughly 750 mya (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart 180 mya. Evolution of life Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 bya and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The development of photosynthesis allowed the Suns energy to be harvested directly by life forms; the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and formed a layer of ozone (a form of molecular oxygen [O3]) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized the surface of Earth. Since the 1960s, it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and 580 mya, during the Neoproterozoic, covered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed Snowball Earth, and is of particular interest because it preceded he Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms began to proliferate. Following the Cambrian explosion, about 535 mya, there have been five major mass extinctions. [55] The most recent such event was 65 mya, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the (non-avian) dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 65 myr, mammalian life has diversified, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand upright. This enabled tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which allowed the evolution of the human race. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, allowed humans to influence the Earth in a short time span as no other life form had, affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 mya and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 mya. High-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40–100,000 years. The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.

Homelessness Essay Example for Free

Homelessness Essay Homelessness is defined as the situation where one has no decent place to stay mostly because they cannot afford it. Homeless families are those who lack permanent places to live in and instead have to live in shelters, motels, cars, campgrounds or with family members or friends. The extent of homelessness varies with varying factors in the US for instance the geographical location, gender and age. (Levinson D, 2004). Homelessness in the USA is a social or rather a national problem that has been increasing over the years. Giving the exact or accurate figures of homeless people in the US is a difficult task as it tends to be a temporary problem. Again, the approach used to count the homeless people is using the service providers who deal with them paving way for miscounting as not all homeless people would use such facilities. According to a research by the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty in 2007 there were approximately 3. 5million people in America out of which 1. 35 were children. The population affected by poverty is diverse in the sense that it incorporates single adults, adults with children as well as the homeless youth. (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2008). This paper will focus on the nature, scope and population affected by homelessness in the US; it will also highlight the possible solutions to the problem. As David in ‘Encyclopedia of homelessness’ noted one way of estimating the extent of family homelessness in the US was to establish the number of homeless people who were from homeless families. It was established that over 41% of the homeless people came from homeless families. (Levinson D, 2004). The National Coalition for the Homeless estimated that in 2003 the number of children below 18 years was 39% of the total homeless population 42% of which were children below five years of age. In terms of gender, the proportion of the males versus females varied when varying factors were put into account. For the single adults without children males were more than females at 65% but for those with children the proportion was lower at 35%. The number of homeless people with children has been increasing over the years in both the rural as well as the urban areas. (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2008). The history of homelessness in the US dates back to the period before the American Revolution and is therefore not a recent phenomenon. This was triggered by the need to seek better employment opportunities in places far from homes. The issue however came to the public domain in the 1980’s and the federal, state as well as local governments channeled finances to resolve the problem. (Rossi P, 1991). These efforts included the establishment of shelters and housing programs but the problem persisted precipitating the adoption of another model to address the issue. It became apparent that the homeless needed the provision of supportive programs and the housed ‘homeless’ would be treated as tenants in their permanent housing. (Levinson D, 2004). As various scholars have established the major cause for homelessness in the US is poverty which makes houses unaffordable to many who can barely afford the necessities of life let alone the expensive houses. (Ploeg J and Scholte E, 1997). Such people cannot afford food, health care, education and child care. Despite the fact that over the years the economy has been growing and it is expected that people’s standards would improve this has not been attained in a uniform manner. Low income earners have faced the music as their pays have remained relatively low and this situation is made worse by the fact that their jobs offer minimal or no benefits. (Burt R, 1999). Their wages have either remained stagnant or have been falling all attributed to the fact that the bargaining power of the labor unions has reduced and the value of the minimum wages eroded. Temporary or part time jobs, increased globalization and a reduction of jobs in the manufacturing sector also contribute to reduced wages. Reduced wages make housing unaffordable to many as housing costs more than the minimum wage. Proof that the reduced wages play a significant role in perpetuating homelessness in the US can be seen in the high numbers of fulltime employed worker living in shelters. (Levinson D, 2004). A reduction in federal assistance to the poor has also led to aggravated poverty rates which lead to homelessness. Programs that initially assisted the poor for instance the Food Stamps and Temporary Assistance to Needy Families have been reduced and the poor have to feel the full weight of all the costs they need to meet. (Levinson D, 2004). Lack of housing assistance programs also makes the problem of homelessness intense. Low cost housing units introduced were ineffective in realizing the intended goal of assisting the needy. Some were converted to expensive apartments and the poor were left unassisted. A stronger economy sees the prices of housing rise making them unaffordable to many poor people. Levinson D, 2004). There were also minimal house assisted units against a massive number of poor people and many had to stay on long waiting lists. As people wait to be placed on the low cost housing units they had to look for places to live in. Other factors that trigger homelessness include the lack of affordable health care which sees people with an added cost to meet. Domestic violence also leads to homelessness especially when battered unemployed women run away from their battering and bread winner husbands. Mental illness also plays a role in influencing homelessness in the US. Statistics have it that over 15% of the total homeless population suffers from some form of mental illness. Some suffer from chronic or persistent mental illnesses or disorders. (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2008). Natural calamities are also to blame for homelessness in America. A good illustration is the hurricane Katrina and Rita which saw the destruction of over 300000 homes. (Mathison S and Ross E, 2008). Since the problem of homelessness is caused by many factors, no single solution would suffice to whip it out. It is important to adopt both proactive as well as reactive approaches. Proactive measures would be geared to preventing homelessness while the reactive measures would be resolving the problem after its occurrence. It would be vital to ensure that the minimum wage is uplifted so that even the low income earners have a higher amount of money at their disposal. The government ought to renew its commitment in providing low cost housing units. Educational programs among the homeless would place them at a better position in seeking for employment opportunities in the very competitive job market. This way the vicious circle of homelessness would be reduced. The government can also adopt measures that would ensure increased job opportunities as unemployment triggers homelessness. The adoption of community based programs for instance transitional housing as well as emergency shelter only offers temporary solutions and permanent solutions are vital. Since the homeless face many problems ranging from insecurity, inadequate health food supplies and medical care facilities their provision would be effective. (Wiecha L, Dwyer T and Dunn-Strohecker, M, 1991). The government at the various levels must see to it that the homeless gain accessibility to quality health as well as enough and nutritional food. The young children especially those below five years of age must be treated with the specialty they deserve. (Backner I and Bassouk E, 1997). Appropriate strategies must also be enforced to allow those suffering from mental illnesses that can be effectively treated from home gain access to housing as they form a sizable number of the homeless population. Programs to reduce alcohol and drug abuse would also be appropriate in the eradication of homelessness in the US. (Whitt C. 1994).

A detailed assignment examining Leadership style management

A detailed assignment examining Leadership style management Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he/she is directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal. A leader is seen as someone who sets the paths in an effort to influence people to adhere to those paths. Leadership is an action and not just a position. It can be shown via different people in various situations. A person is not born to be a leader but cultured through the upbringing and environment. A leaders personal characteristics are also vital for the developments and motivations of the organizations. True leaders such as the teachers who illustrated that leadership is an action (teaching and leading the students) and not a position. Touching the lives and affecting the outcome of many different expectations, a teacher is the epitome of a leader. A leader has his or her own style of motivating the people in the organizations. A leader must find the best skills in order to provide directions, motivations and purposes. Effective leaders are flexible. Organizational Leadership Model The effective leadership influence is not the same for everyone. It depends on their ranks in the organization and abilities which are required in leaders. The three basic leadership roles identified: initiation, speech, and management. 1. Initiation Initiation refers to planned decision making on policy formulation or structural change. These vital decisions are the determinants of the organizations culture and mission. 2. Speech Strategic decisions and methods designed for implementation within the establishment. It includes adjusting or adding on to the present structure towards new policy demands. 3. Management Management is putting into practice the policies and measures that are available to maintain the operations of the organization efficiently. These three kinds of Leadership are naturally executed at diverse ranks in the company with different abilities and skills. The top level management would initiate new policies that involve a change in the businesss structure or understanding the companys mission. An understanding of the entire organization, culture, mission, vision and how it correlates with the external parties is mandatory for these top level individuals. They represent the organization and what the business stands for. Understanding the policy decisions and practicing them to the existing organization via utterance or speech is usually made by the intermediate-level managers. They must uphold a two-way point of reference by taking orders from the above management and adapting them for the lower groups of people in the organization. Type of Leadership Process Typical Organizational Level Cognitive (Knowledge) Affective (Emotion) Initiation: Change, creation and elimination of structure Top echelons System perspective Charisma Speech: supplementing and piecing out of structure Intermediate levels: pivotal roles Subsystem perspective: two-way orientation Integration of primary and secondary relations: human relation skills Management: use of existing structure Lower levels Technical knowledge and understanding of system of rules Concern with equity in use of rewards and sanctions EXHIBIT 16.1 Three Leadership Patterns, Their Location in the Organization, and Their Skill Requirements The companys policies and procedures will be administered by the Lower-level supervisors. These personnel must possess both the technical knowledge and a clear perception of the organizations rules in order to be successful. They have to continually deal with issues such as equity, rewards and punishments in leading others. Therefore, leadership plays a crucial role in an organization because the it has direct impact on the effectiveness of the organizations. Leadership is when a person manipulates others to perform a task at their own will which they would not normally do. Leadership is a vital process to an organization and it can be deliberated on three different stages; i.e. the individual, group and organization. Analysis at the individual stage: the leadership studies have paid attention on the successful leader personalities. Behaviors of both formal and informal leaders are focused at the group level. The effectiveness of an organization is decided by the relations between the leader, follower and circumstances. The studies have caused an emergence of different theories of leadership, namely situational and contingency. In Search for Leadership The requirements in selecting and training efficient leaders were emphasized during the World War I and the quarter century between World War l and World War II; numerous studies were made to examine the personal characteristics of good leaders. These studies are usually referred as characteristic studies since the primary goal was to classify the traits and personal characteristics of successful leaders. The diverse methods used to study these leadership traits could possibly be the reason in the irregularities of the results. The manner of studies was not consistent in identifying the leaders. A majority of the studies was in comparing efficient with inefficient leaders or leaders with non-leaders. Some were identified by external observers, others selected by the group by way of recommendation or voting, nominated by observers such as teachers while some were chosen because they are already in leadership positions. The studies conducted were in conflict as to the way they deliberated on the traits. Some traits were measured by mental tests; others relied on viewers to spot the traits they have seen while some depended on the persons to report their own personality traits. The trait studies were quite unsatisfactory as a whole especially since they had hoped to develop an accurate measure of leadership effectiveness. The spotlight on the leadership research moved because of the flimsy results, to contingency studies which investigated more than just traits of a leader. Numerous traits formed an important divergence in leadership effectiveness and they interrelated with other conditional variables to stimulate the effectiveness of the leader. Physical Behaviors Physical attributes including height, weight, health and appearance are also examined in the studies. It was concluded that there is a relationship between the above features and leadership. Apparently leaders have the tendency to be taller, heavier, better fitness, greater physique, higher energy output and more attractive in appearance. However, these types of results were not always reliable and consistent. The results neither are too weak in general and not consistent to be effective in selecting leaders nor are they helpful for training functions since not much can be made to alter most of these physical traits. Intellect It was generally agreed that leaders are more intellectual than non-leaders and the relationship was shown in the various studies. The relationship could probably begin from the reality that leadership functions depend mostly on success in problem solving. Leadership roles such as initiation, speech and management necessitate great mental ability. In general, it is safe to assume that leaders seems to be more intelligent than non-leaders but the relationships are small. Many other variables other than intellect inspire leadership effectiveness. It was also suggested that leaders should not be too intelligent than the group because associates who are notably brilliant than others are rarely chosen as leaders since the other members tend to snub them. Individuals with high IQs are inclined to have different sets of vocabulary, networks and aspirations that would create communication and inter-relations problems. Leaders do extremely well generally at school/college/university and score better grades. It is important for effective leadership to know how to do things. Thus general and practical knowledge are essential for leaders to make better decisions. Characteristic Traits Only a partial of the characteristic traits seem to be related to leadership and most are not especially convincing. It was suggested that the average leader is more used to social displays, greater initiative, persistent, knows how to get things done, self-confident, are more cooperative and adaptable, and possesses excellent communication skills. Leaders were found to be more emotionally mature than non-leaders in the personality integration or emotional adjustment. It can be concluded that personal characteristics are related to leadership. Effective leadership does not depend on a mixture of personality traits only because situational variables are also important since they always decide whether a character was associated with effective leadership either positively or negatively. Therefore, it can deduced that effective leadership depends on the leaders characteristics, his subordinates and the nature of the task at hand. Many leadership styles were based on studies of leaders behaviors. The finest researches on the styles of leadership are made together at the same time; i.e. The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan. Researchers acknowledged two leader behaviors that were similar although the investigations were conducted separately. As a result, a two dimensional aspects of leadership have been to used to form the Managerial Grid. Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-faire Leadership Due to the diverse political systems in the US and Germany before World War II inspired studies of leadership which evaluated three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez faire. In the democratic leadership style, decisions were made by vote of majority; equal participation encouraged; criticism and punishment minimal. In the autocratic leader, the leader made all the decisions and others must follow the set procedures strictly. In the laissez-faire leader, there was minimal actual leadership and others were permitted to work and play as usual without proper directives. Initiating Structure and Consideration The two leadership factors were initiating structure and consideration which include leadership behaviors in organizing and defining the tasks to be performed and goal achievements. A leader who assigns people to do specific jobs, expected workers to follow set routines and meet deadlines. The consideration factor is showing friendship, mutual trust, warmth and concern for subordinates. Production-Centered and Employee-Centered Leader Behaviors Production centered behaviors were akin to initiating structure in which leaders would establish targets, gave directives, checked on operations and planned the group Employees work. Centered behaviors were similar to the considerations dimension in which the leader would develop a caring personal relationship with the subordinates and encouraged a two-way communication with them. The relationship between production-centered and employee centered behaviors are found to be independent scopes of leadership. A leader with strong production orientation does not mean that he is disinterested in the employees. Managerial Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton had created a framework which combines a concern for task accomplishment and a concern for people called the Managerial Grid. They both assumed that concern for production and concern for people would produce the most effective leadership style. There are leaders primarily more concerned with accomplishing the production and task not concerned about people. This person wants the job done and schedule followed at all costs. There is also individual who is not concerned whether the group produces anything but concerned more about the personal needs and interests of the team members. Ideally, leaders should be concerned about meeting schedules in order to get the work done and simultaneously are concerned about the team members interest and feelings too. The Managerial Grid is popular among managers. It is extensively used by organisations as part of their training program to assess leadership style. However, the effectiveness of the Managerial Grid is not consistently supported. The factors which are considered in determining leadership styles interact in complicated ways which resulted in various leadership styles. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP In assessing leadership effectiveness, there are many factors that must be combined. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed a situational leadership model which considers three variables: (1) guidance and direction provided by the leaders (task behavior) (2)emotional support given by the leader (relationship behavior) (3) the maturity level exhibited in performing the task As a result, four potential leadership styles have been created using a combination of the above factors : S1: Telling Give instructions and supervise performance closely. Suited for followers who are unwilling but of low maturity. S2: Selling Decide and provide opportunity for explanation. Appropriate for followers who are not able but willing. S3: Participating Sharing ideas in making decisions. Suited for followers who are able but not willing. S4: Delegating Responsibility handed over for decisions and performance. Appropriate for groups who are able and willing. Contingency Theory of Leadership Fiedler studied the interaction of leadership style and situation. He identified and developed ways to measure leadership orientation of the leader and situational factors which influence leadership. Leader Orientation Two types of leaders were identified, i.e. relationship-oriented or task-oriented. Leaders who are relationship-oriented tend to look at others as coworkers and look upon interpersonal relations as a requirement towards accomplishing the task. However, for task-oriented leaders, they react strongly against people whom they could not get along with in performing a task. Situational favorableness (1) relationships between leader and member can be good or bad; (2) the task is relatively well planned or not; and (3) the leaders authority is relatively strong or weak. The task structure becomes the second most important situational variable as evaluated by judges who examined four aspects of the task structure. Clarity: whether requirements of the tasks are stated clearly, Multiplicity: which the problems encounter can be solved. Verifiability: which the correctness of the decisions can be ascertained. Specificity: which there are generally more solutions involved in performing the task. Group effectiveness Relationship-oriented leaders perform excellently well in situations where concern for the team members is apparently necessary in order to motivate them to perform well. People naturally prefer leaders who care about them and their welfare. However, task-oriented leaders are clearly more effective in impossible situations. Path-Goal Model Directive leadership: subordinates are told what to be expected. Specific guide, standards and work schedules are provided to ensure that task are performed as expected. Supportive leadership: subordinates are treated equally and show concern for their needs and well-being; develop pleasant interpersonal relationships among the group members. Achievement-oriented leadership: challenging goals are set and subordinates are expected to perform at their highest level, improvement in performance always. Participative leadership: subordinates are consulted on suggestions and ideas in making decisions. Situational factors Situational factors characteristics of the followers and environmental factors which affect leadership style. Significant characteristics of the followers which have been identified as determinants of leadership style are: (1). Followers with internal locus of control believe that they are rewarded for their own effort. Meanwhile, followers with external locus of control believe that external forces have a control on their rewards. (2). Authoritarianism: an individuals willingness to accept the influence of others. (3). Abilities: The followers ability and experience influence a leader whether they are able to work with an achievement oriented leader or a supportive leader who are patient enough to provide encouragement and instruction. The path-goal model recognises three environmental factors which effect leadership styles: the nature of the task to be performed, the existing organisations authority system the organisational norms and dynamics The above factors may influence the effectiveness of different leadership styles in a many ways. Normative Decision-Making Model of Leadership Based on the contingency theory of leadership, this leadership model does not assume any leadership style as appropriate for all situations. Leaders must develop a range of leadership styles and take on the most appropriate style depending on the situation. Leaders are required to know in which circumstances they need to consult others and vice versa. Even though the leader may be the chairman of the group, he is just one of the group members and does not try to influence the group to adopt a particular solution. Criteria for selecting a leadership style. Two criteria used for assessing the efficiency of a leadership style are quality and acceptance. The quality of the decisions made refers to the accurateness of the actions taken and the extent which some objectives are achieved. The quality of decisions depends on accurate and relevant information Conferring with other group members often provides additional information. Diagnostic decision rules. In order to save time and minimize costs, some managers choose the lead autocratically. If the aim was to further the subordinates personal development, the participative style is selected. In some strategies, the manager decides alone. At times, the manager decides on his own after earlier consultations with his subordinates. Comparing the leadership models. All situational leadership models emphasize on the effect of external factors on a particular leadership style. Different leadership styles suggest styles that are determined by various situational factors. The models focus on different methods, which are situational factors and criteria for selecting the best style: task-oriented versus relationship-oriented. The normative decision-making model ascertains three leadership styles, namely autocratic, consultative, and participative. In each model, situational factors which influence the effectiveness of leadership are somewhat different. A significant reason being that normative decision- making model equates leadership with making decisions and looks at only this leadership function. The models also use different criteria for evaluating leadership effectiveness. DETERMINANTS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Although identifying what makes an effective leader seems like a simple task, however, individuals who are in leadership positions are often faced with a dilemma on deciding which leadership pattern to practice. Choosing a Leadership Style Choosing the most appropriate leadership style to adopt depends largely on the context of the organisation. A successful leader must be capable of assessing the situational forces in the organisation and respond accordingly to the needs. The forces include the organisation culture, business goals as well as the organisations strategic plans. Effective leaders must understand themselves, the group, company and social environment. Strategies for Improving Leadership One of the main variable to improve leadership relates largely to the organisations reward system. Leaders should not overlook his capacity to reward his followers accordingly since followers will respond otherwise. For instance, the managers of high- performing groups generally are compensated according to their achievements. Considerate leaders manage to create satisfaction among their performing subordinates while at the same time, changes in the behavior of the leaders could be caused by the performance of the subordinates. Constraints on leader behavior. Leaders have limited opportunities to influence others. Leadership effectiveness is inhibited by a variety of factors. For example, the managerial decisions are planned ahead because of the law, structure, technological specifications and the absence of alternatives. Many other organisational factors can impose limitations on the leaders capability to either communicate with or to reinforce the behavior of the subordinates. For example, organisational policies, nature of task, skills and abilities of available resources and other external factors may impede the capacities of organisational leaders. External factors. In terms of external factors, leaders are constrained by factors that they have no control on such as state and federal laws. Other external factors include the world economy and global issues. Irrespective of their leadership style, leaders with unskilled resources will face great challenges in leading. The availability of skilled followers is subjected to the external labor market. Organizational policies. The organization may limit a leaders effectiveness by hampering the amount of communication between leaders and followers. The existing company policies may also pose restrictions on the ability of leaders to reward or punish followers. Group factors. Leaders may find it hard to penetrate or influence group members who are highly unified. This will create difficulty for leaders to demonstrate his true capabilities in performing tasks for the organisation. Individual skills and abilities. The leaders own skills and abilities may act as constraints since leaders can only possess so much expertise, energy, and power. Some situations may simply require greater skills and abilities than the leader may possibly hope to possess. Substitutes for leadership. While some situations constrain leaders other situations make leadership unnecessary. These variables are referred to as substitute variables because they substitute for leadership either by making the leaders behavior unnecessary or by neutralizing the leaders ability to influence subordinates. Leadership is an extremely important function. It has an enormous influence on the value of groups and organizations. The complexity of the situation, however, may prevent us from knowing in advance which will be the most effective leadership behaviors. SUMMARY 1. Leadership refers to increasing influence which occur when an individual manipulates others to do tasks voluntarily which they would not do otherwise. The basic leadership roles include initiation of policy and structure, speech, and management. A need for leadership within organizations stems from the incompleteness of the organization design and the dynamic nature of the internal and external environments. 2. The studies of leadership were mainly studies on traits that tried to identify the characteristics of effective leaders. The studies focused mainly on physical traits, intellect and characteristic. The results were usually weak and inconsistent although some personal characteristics were always related to leadership. Most studies concluded that the characteristics of the subordinate and the nature of the task were as important as the characteristics of the leader in determining success. 3. Another approach to studying leadership set on leader behaviors; i.e. how leaders actually behave. One of the studies compared three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire. Although democratic leadership produced the greatest satisfaction, autocratic leadership had the highest levels of productivity. 4. Research conducted simultaneously at two universities identified two similar leadership behaviors. At The Ohio State University the researchers labeled these two leader behaviors initiating structure and consideration. At the University of Michigan the same two factors were labeled production-centered and employee-centered leader behaviors. These two leader behaviors appear to identify leadership functions essential to the effectiveness of a group. The two Factors have been used to form a matrix called the Managerial Grid which places a concern for production on one side of the grid and concern for people on the other. The research evidence does not support this conclusion consistently. 5. The unsuccessful research to identify leadership traits or universally superior leader behaviors caused an emergence of development of four situational theories of leadership. The theories suggest that the most effective leadership style depends upon situational variables particularly the characteristics of the group and the nature of the task. 6. A situational leadership model that matched different combinations of task behavior and relationship behavior with the maturity of the followers. As the followers increase, the appropriate leadership style is telling, selling, participating, and finally for highly mature followers, delegating. 7. The most appropriate leadership style was determined by assessing three situational variables: whether the relationships between the leader and the members were good or poor, the task was structured or unstructured, and the power position of the leader was strong or weak. When these three situational variables created an extremely favorable or extremely unfavorable situation, the most effective leadership style was a task-oriented leader. However, where there were intermediate levels of favorableness, a leader with a high concern for interpersonal relationships was more effective in these situations. 8. The path goal model theory is derived from expectancy theory. It suggests that effective leaders must clarify the target paths and increase its attractiveness for followers. Four distinct leadership styles are proposed in the model: directive, supportive achievement-oriented and participative leadership styles. The style most appropriate depends upon two types of situational factors: the characteristics of the follower and characteristics of the environment. Three of the most important follower characteristics include the locus of control, authoritarianism, and personal abilities. The three environmental factors include the nature of the task, the formal authority system within the organization, and the group norms and dynamics. 9. The three leadership styles include autocratic decision making, consultative decision making, and group decision making. The decision titles determining which style is most appropriate include such questions as whether the leader has adequate information to make the decision alone, whether the subordinates will accept the goals of the organization, whether subordinates will accept the decision if they do not participate in making it, and whether the decision will produce a controversial solution. 10. The influence of the group upon the leader should not be overlooked. The relationship between the leader and the group implies a reciprocal influence. Groups have the capacity to influence the behavior of their leaders by responding selectively to specific leader behaviors. The influence of a leader can also be constrained by several external factors, such as organizational policies, group norms, and individual skills and abilities. Other variables have been found to neutralize or substitute for the influence of a leader, such as the skills and abilities of followers and the nature of the task itself. POSITIONING ON LEADERSHIP CRISIS There are many leadership theories. Arthur G. Jago (1982) had proposed a framework that organizes leadership theories based on each theorys focus and approach. Focus refers to whether the leadership is seen as a set of traits or actions. There is a universal formula of traits or behavior for an effective leader. However, effective leadership also depends on specific situations. The kinds of behaviors that leaders can actually perform in a group. The two leader behaviors that have been consistently observed including task-related activities, called initiating structure or production-centered activities, and interpersonal relations activities, sometimes called consideration or employee-centered activities. The incremental influence that one individual exerts upon another and that causes the second person to change his or her behavior voluntarily. Three leadership roles include origination of the structure by top-level managers, interpolation or adapting the structure by middle-level managers and administration or implementation of the policies and procedures by lower-level supervisors. I concur with A. Ange on the presence of leadership crisis but I also foresee the resolutions taken and are still being taken to resolve the problem. Many organizations are spending money in sending their employees to be groomed and trained for future growth of the company whereby they are exposed to different methods of management and how to be great leaders. Leaders are born to leaders but in some circumstances, situations and environments also play a huge role in creating a leader. Leaders come and go and new ones are always on the threshold to take over the empty space. The qualities of the leaders and their leadership styles vary but they are vital in the development and motivation processes of the organizations. There is a crisis in good leadership but it is not at a critical point. Big organizations would have everything in place for the future growth of the company and would have in line the replacements for all aspects of the management. Even is small to medium sized organizations have planned their management line-ups for the future. The ongoing programs and trainings that are conducted by organizations to produce capable leaders and groom them further showed that companies are aware of the could be crisis and had taken steps to overcome the situation. Yes, there is a crisis but the severity of the crisis is not huge enough to cause panics throughout the organizations.